Bioprinting Vascularized Constructs for Clinical Relevance: Engineering Hydrogel Systems for Biological Maturity

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

• Level A · Stronger Clinical Evidence
• Level B · Emerging clinical evidence with positive signals
• Level C · Early human research exploring benefits
• Level D · Scientific groundwork from lab and animal studies
• Emerging · Emerging topic under active research

Abstract (original English)

Vascularization remains a critical challenge in tissue engineering, limiting graft survival, integration, and clinical translation. Although bioprinting enables spatial control over vascular architectures, many existing approaches prioritize geometric precision over biological performance. Bioprinted vasculature can be understood as a dynamic and time-dependent system that requires tissue-specific maturation. Within this framework, hydrogel systems act as active microenvironments rather than passive scaffolds. Hydrogel platforms vary from natural matrices and synthetic polymers to bioinspired or stimuli-responsive systems, each offering tunable control over stiffness, degradation, and biochemical signaling needed for vascular maturation. The design requirements of large and small vessels differ in terms of mechanical demands, remodeling capacity, and host integration. A key limitation in current models is the absence of time-resolved evaluation, as critical processes such as lumen formation, pericyte recruitment, and flow-induced remodeling occur progressively and are not captured by static endpoints. Advancements in bioprinting technologies are evaluated based on their capacity to support hydrogel-mediated vascularization across varying length scales and structural complexities. A framework for functional assessment is proposed, and translational challenges related to immunoge

Evidence level

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

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