Phytochemistry, Biological Activities, Molecular Mechanisms, and Toxicity of Saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.): A Comprehensive Overview

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

• Level A · Stronger Clinical Evidence
• Level B · Emerging clinical evidence with positive signals
• Level C · Early human research exploring benefits
• Level D · Scientific groundwork from lab and animal studies
• Emerging · Emerging topic under active research

Abstract (original English)

Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.), known as the world's most valuable spice, has long been appreciated for its culinary, medicinal, and cultural significance. In recent years, increasing scientific attention has been directed toward its unique phytochemical profile and wide-ranging therapeutic potential. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current evidence regarding saffron's chemical composition, molecular mechanisms of action, pharmacological activities, and safety aspects. The stigmas of saffron contain a rich array of bioactive constituents, notably crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which collectively contribute to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-obesity, antidiabetic, and anticancer properties. Evidence from in vitro and in vivo models, as well as clinical studies, suggests that saffron primarily exerts its beneficial effects through the modulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, lipid metabolism, and the regulation of key molecular pathways, including the NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways. Furthermore, recent advances in nanotechnology-based formulations have demonstrated improved bioavailability and enhanced therapeutic efficacy, thereby opening up promising avenues for clinical applications. While saffron is generally regarded as safe, challenges rem

Evidence level

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

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