Three-Dimensional Printing of the Epineurium for Peripheral Nerve Repair: A Comprehensive Review of Novel Scaffolds for Nerve Conduits

Relatively higher-quality human studies compared with other topics in this database, e.g. multiple RCTs or systematic reviews. This does not mean it is standard or approved care.

• Level A · Stronger Clinical Evidence
• Level B · Emerging clinical evidence with positive signals
• Level C · Early human research exploring benefits
• Level D · Scientific groundwork from lab and animal studies
• Emerging · Emerging topic under active research

Abstract (original English)

Background: Nerve conduits are used to bridge peripheral nerve defects caused by trauma, iatrogenic injury, or oncologic disruption. Three-dimensional (3D) biomimetic scaffolds for peripheral nerve regeneration have advanced significantly in recent years, driven by improvements in printing technology and neuronal seeding techniques. We report on published designer conduits that can recreate the epineurium, a critical yet challenging-to-manufacture feature of nerve tissue. Methods: A medical librarian conducted a literature search for our systematic review on EMBASE, Web of Science, and PUBMED, following PRISMA guidelines, for articles from January 2010 to January 2026 for the systematic review. Descriptive statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft 365 Suite software. The literature review was conducted using keywords and search terms describing the history and development of 3DP nerve guidance conduits published prior to January 2026. Results: Our search yielded 273 titles, of which 8 were included after full-text review; these studies used 3D printing to generate nerve conduits for preclinical models. Manual data extraction identified studies reporting successful epineurial recreation. The included scaffold materials were polycaprolactone, poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), acrylate resin, and gelatin methacryloyl. In animal model studie

Evidence level

Relatively higher-quality human studies compared with other topics in this database, e.g. multiple RCTs or systematic reviews. This does not mean it is standard or approved care.

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