Mitochondrial transfer as a driver of immune microenvironment remodeling

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

• Level A · Stronger Clinical Evidence
• Level B · Emerging clinical evidence with positive signals
• Level C · Early human research exploring benefits
• Level D · Scientific groundwork from lab and animal studies
• Emerging · Emerging topic under active research

Abstract (original English)

Mitochondria are central regulators of immunometabolism, and emerging evidence identifies intercellular mitochondrial transfer as a key driver of immune microenvironment remodeling. Beyond energy production, transferred mitochondria reshape immune niches by reprogramming metabolic fitness, redox balance, inflammatory tone, and immune cell interactions. Through multiple transfer routes, including tunneling nanotubes, extracellular vesicles, and gap junctions, mitochondrial exchange modulates immune activation, immunosuppression, and tolerance across diverse physiological and pathological contexts. In this review, we summarize current mechanisms of mitochondrial transfer and highlight how this process directionally remodels the immune microenvironment in inflammation, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. We further discuss therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating mitochondrial transfer to reprogram immune responses, providing new perspectives for immunomodulation and disease intervention.

Evidence level

Evidence from laboratory and animal studies provides groundwork for understanding mechanisms and potential before human studies continue.

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